A Key to the Inter-National Language Esperanto

INTRODUCTION

The 3000 languages in the world today were originated by our ancient ancestors and morphed over several millennia. These languages are full of inconsistencies and irregularities. It is a tribute to the capacity of the human mind that it can handle such difficult material. In 1887, a new language, free from irregularities, was introduced. By speaking this relatively easy-to-learn bridge language, people from all backgrounds are able to overcome the language barrier. Today, Esperanto is the only planned human language in widespread use. Use an Esperanto-English dictionary and refer to this "key" while reading texts in Esperanto to help you unlock the meaning of Esperanto according to the grammatical rules.

CONTENTS

Jump to the following topic:

· Alphabet

· Structure

· Pronouns

· Affixes

· Adverbs

· Numbers

· Correlatives

· Participles

· Accusative

· Prepositions

Esperanto-English Glossary | English-Esperanto Glossary

ALPHABET

Every Esperanto word is pronounced as it is spelt, without exception. The five vowels are a as in father, e as in set, i as in machine, o as in bone, u as in tune. (These guides are for U.S. English speakers.)

The six letters unique to Esperanto, ĉ, ĝ, ĥ, ĵ, ŝ and ŭ, were introduced so that every sound could be represented by just one letter (unlike combinations such as "ch" in "church" or "sh" as in "shoe"). In Esperanto, q, w, x and y are absent, but appear in foreign names, and are treated like ç, ñ, ð, ø, ß etc.

The consonants are pronounced pretty much the same as in English, but those that differ from English are as follows:

c	ts as in dance
ĉ	ch as in chop
g	'hard' g as in go
ĝ	'soft' g as in age
ĥ	'hard' like j in Andalusean Spanish jota or ch in Scottish loch
j	y as in year
ĵ	is like s in pleasure
s	always like s in sip
ŝ	sh as in shoe
ŭ	w as in west

All of the other consonants are like in English, except note that r is slightly trilled, like in Spanish. The dot over the j is lost in ĵ.

Combinations involving vowels:

aj	like y in sky
ej	like ay in day
oj	like oy in boy
uj	like ouy in bouy, but as one syllable
aŭ	like ow in cow
eŭ	say eh+w as one syllable

The stress in Esperanto always falls on the second-to-last vowel. Be careful with words like radio and familio, in which the last i is stressed. Also, be aware that there are no "silent" letters in Esperanto. So in words with combinations such as kn or sc at the beginning, both consonants must be sounded out. The sc combination may be tricky, but in reality it is common in English, in words such as chests. This combination appears on the beginning of some common Esperanto words.

STRUCTURE
(NOUNS, ADJECTIVES & VERBS)

Esperanto words consist of an assembly of parts put together in a logical fashion. Their function in a sentence is signaled by their grammatical endings. The ability to make words by combination greatly reduces the need for memorization. This principle is found in nature, where, from approximately 110 elements, millions of substances can be created by various combinations.

Root words, or base words, give the general idea, but they lack a definite meaning until they receive a grammatical ending. Take the root akv-, for example, which means “water.” Adding -o makes the singular noun akvo, a thing, “water." Adding -j makes it plural, so that akvoj means “waters.” Alternatively, adding -a to akv- makes akva, an adjective, “watery.”

The Guinness Book of World Records lists Esperanto as the only language in which there are no irregular verbs to learn. By comparison, French has 2238, and Spanish and German have about 700 apiece. There is only one pattern in Esperanto, which consists of just 6 endings for verbs. The present, past and future are shown by the endings -as, -is and -os, respectively. The infinitive is shown by -i, the imperative by -u, and the conditional by -us. So, from the root for “speak,” parol-, and mi (meaning "I") we make:

mi parolas	I speak, I am speaking
mi parolis	I spoke, I was speaking
mi parolos	I will speak
paroli	to speak
parolu!	speak!
mi parolu	I should speak
mi parolus	I would speak

To ask a yes/no question in Esperanto, the word ĉu is used. Any sentence that begins with ĉu is saying, “Is it true that…?” Ĉu li parolis? Means “Did you speak?” In non-interrogatory, contexts, ĉu means “whether.”

PRONOUNS

mi	I, me	ni	we, us
vi	you (whether one or many)
li ŝi ĝi	he, him she, her it	ili	they, them

reflexive pronoun for when the actor
of a verb is also the recipient of the action.

oni

one/they

Example: Oni diras ke... They say that...

Adding -a to a pronoun makes it possessive. mia = my. These possessive pronouns behave in the same manner as adjectives, in that they can go before or after the noun, and they will be in the plural (and accusative, see below) if the noun is also. “My house” could be mia domo or domo mia.

AFFIXES

Affixes are the elements which are most often used to modify the meanings of root words, although they can stand as root words if logic permits. Those affixes which come at the beginnings of words are called prefixes, those found at the ends of roots are called suffixes. The very last part of a complete Esperanto word is the grammatical ending, for example, one of the endings used above to create verbs.

Prefixes

bo-	in-law	filo	son	bofilo	son-in-law
dis-	separation	doni	to give	disdoni	to distribute
eks-	former	edzo	husband	eksedzo	ex-husband
ek-	start	vidi	to see	ekvidi	to catch a glimpse of
fi-	immoral	libro	book	filibro	dirty book
ge-	both sexes	patro	father/parent	gepatroj	parents
mal-	opposite (note: not "bad")	varma	warm	malvarma	cold
pra-	long ago	historio	history	prahistorio	prehistory
re-	again	legi	to read	relegi	to read again

Suffixes

-aĉ	filthy	vetero	weather	veteraĉo	foul weather
-ad	continuation	studi	to study	studado	act of studying
-aĵ	thing	manĝi	to eat	manĝaĵo	food
-an	member	klubo	club	klubano	club member
-ar	collection	arbo	tree	arbaro	forest
-ebl	possible	vidi	to see	videbla	visible
-ec	quality	libera	free	libereco	freedom
-eg	increases	domo	house	domego	mansion
-ej	place	kuiri	to cook	kuirejo	kitchen
-em	tendency	paroli	speak	parolema	talkative
-er	piece of	polvo	dust	polvero	dust mote
-estr	boss	lernejo	school	lernejestro	principal
-et	reduces	domo	house	dometo	cottage
-id	offspring	kato	cat	katido	kitten
-iĝ	become	naski verda	to bear green	naskiĝi verdiĝi	to be born to become green
-ig	causation	dormi	to sleep	dormigi	to put to sleep
-il	tool	tranĉi	to cut	tranĉilo	knife
-ind	worthy	laŭdi	to praise	laŭdinda	praiseworthy
-ing	socket	kandelo	candle	kandelingo	candlestick
-ĉj	male diminutive	patro	father	paĉjo	papa
-in	female	avo leono	grandfather lion	avino leonino	grandmother leonino
-ism	ideology	Markso	Marx (Karl)	marksismo	Marxism
-ist	professional	baki	to bake	bakisto	baker
-nj	female diminutive	patrino	mother	panjo	mama
-op	group	tri	3	triopo	threesome
-uj	container	cigaro	cigar	cigarujo	cigar box
-ul	guy	nova	new	novulo	newbie/novice

-um

(wild card)

um is an affix with no definite meaning that you can use when no others are appropriate.

folio	leaf	foliumi	to leaf through (a book, for example)
cerbo	brain	cerbumi	to brainstorm

Whole words can be built from the affixes. ilo tool, ilaro a set of tools, ilarujo a toolbox. See how creative you can be!

ADVERBS

Adverbs are words that modify a verb, adjective or another adverb and describe how some action is done. They are formed by adding -e to the root. So Li rapide kuras means "he quickly runs." -e can be attached to almost any root, so a sentence such as Kata kato kate katas meaning "a catlike cat cattishly behaves as a cat," is entirely possible. Note there is no Esperanto word for "a or an." There is only one word, la, for "the."

There is a separate class of adverbs, marked by -aŭ. When a word has this ending, it is incorporated into the root. For example, "soon" is baldaŭ, but there is no root bald-. You can, however, add affixes and grammatical endings to make words such as baldaŭa, which would mean "forthcoming."

NUMBERS

The numerals are completely regular, and are built with a small number of elements.

0	nul
1	unu
2	du
3	tri
4	kvar
5	kvin
6	ses
7	sep
8	ok
9	naŭ
10	dek
100	cent
1000	mil

From these thirteen root words, you can make any number under a million

11	dek unu
12	dek du
13	dek tri
20	dudek
21	dudek unu
39	tridek naŭ
140	cent kvardek
1999	mil naŭcent naŭdek naŭ
2000	du mil

The numbers listed above are called cardinal numbers. Ordinal numbers, which are used to put things in their order, (such as "first," "second," "third", etc.), are formed by putting -a at the end. So, "the 7th father" is la sepa patro. But "7 fathers" would be sep patroj.

CORRELATIVES

The idea behind correlative words is that certain words like where, there, nowhere, everywhere and somewhere are related, as are whose, that person's, no one's, everyone's and someone’s.

Each correlative word consists of three parts, with i being in the middle of every word (it is also the accented syllable in every correlative word).

The last part of each word shows the topic. Here are the nine in alphabetical order:

a	kind
al	motive or reason
am	time
e	place
el	manner
es	possession
o	object
om	amount
u	individuality

At the beginning comes the five ways to think about the topics. These parts are:

k	question
t	definite answer
(blank)	indefinite
nen	negation
ĉ	universality

After assembling the nine endings and five beginnings, we can logically create 45 words, although some meanings would have to be stretched in precise English translation.

kia	what kind of?
tia	that kind of
ia	some kind of
nenia	no kind of
ĉia	every kind of

kial	for what reason? why?
tial	for that reason, therefore
ial	for some reason
nenial	for no reason
ĉial	for every reason

kiam	at what time? when?
tiam	at that time, then
iam	at some time, sometime
neniam	at no time, never
ĉiam	at every time, always

kie	at what place? where?
tie	at that place, there
ie	at some place, somewhere
nenie	at no place, nowhere
ĉie	at every place, everywhere

kiel	in what manner? how?
tiel	in that manner, thus
iel	in some manner
neniel	in no manner
ĉiel	in every manner

kies	belonging to whom? whose?
ties	that one's
ies	someone's
nenies	nobody's
ĉies	everybody's

kio	what thing? what?
tio	that thing
io	something
nenio	nothing
ĉio	everything

kiom	what quantity? how much/many?
tiom	that much/many
iom	some of
neniom	none of
ĉiom	all of

kiu	who/which person?
tiu	that person
iu	someone
neniu	no one
ĉiu	each person

The table in a more concise format looks like:

-i- in the middle	k- question	t- definite answer	(blank) indefinite	nen- negation	ĉ- universality
-a kind	kia what kind?	tia kind	ia some kind of	nenia no kind of	ĉia every kind of
-al motive, reason	kial why? for what reason?	tial for that reason	ial for some reason	nenial for no reason	ĉial for every reason
-am time	kiam when? at what time?	tiam then at that time	iam sometime at some time	neniam never at no time	ĉiam always at every time
-e place	kie where? at what place?	tie there at that place	ie somewhere at some place	nenie nowhere at no place	ĉie everywhere at that place
-el manner	kiel how? in what way?	tiel thus in that way	tiel in some way	neniel in no way	ĉiel in every way
-es possession	kies whose? belonging to whom?	ties that person's	ies somebody's	nenies nobody's	ĉies everybody's
-o object	kio what thing?	tio that thing	io something	nenio nothing	ĉio everything
-om quantity	kiom how much?	tiom that much	iom some amount	neniom no amount	ĉiom all of
-u individuality	kiu who? which person	tiu that person	iu somebody	neniu nobody	ĉiu each person

The correlatives ending with -u can be pluralized into kiuj, tiuj, iuj, neniuj and ĉiuj, which mean which people?, those people, some people, (neniuj is possible, but not logical), and everyone.

kiu fenestro	which window?
tiu fenestro	that window
iu fenestro	some window
neniu fenestro	no window
ĉiu fenestro	every window

Correlatives can serve as root words and be built upon. Esperantists ask Kioma estas la horo? meaning "What time is it," or more precisely, “how many is the hour?" Another example is the word kialo which means "a reason."

Notice how the correlatives save time by reducing the amount of memorization. From 14 parts (9 + 5), you get 45 words (9 × 5).

Adding one more word, ajn, to the ki- words and the i- words, you give it uncertainty. kie means where, so kie ajn means wherever and ie means somewhere, and ie ajn means anywhere. This pattern applies to all of the correlatives that start with ki- and i-.

Also, the particle ĉi added to the t- correlatives indicates nearness. ĉi tie means "here," and ĉi tiam means "at this time." It can come before or after the correlative.

PARTICIPLES

Participles are usually based on verbs. If we say, "he is dividing the cake, now the cake is divided," we use one active participle (dividing) and one passive participle (divided).

Esperanto participles are very precise. They not only indicate whether a participle is active or passive, they also tell whether they are taking place in the past, present or future, using i, a, or o, matching the letters for the simple tenses.

A falonta botelo is a bottle which will fall. A falanta botelo is one that is falling through the air. After it hits the floor, it is a falinta botelo. This illustrates the active participle's three forms.

The passive participle is analogous. A cake that is going to be divided is a dividota kuko. When it is in the process of being divided, it is a dividata kuko. Having been cut, it is now a dividita kuko.

These participles can be combined with the three tenses of esti ("to be") to form 9 compound tenses with the active participle and 9 with the passive. This requires some memorization and should be avoided in original expression. They may, however, become necessary for rigorous translation from English. As an example, we can say that in the future, the bottle will have fallen by saying La botelo estos falinta.

If the noun ending o is used instead of the adjectival a, the participle becomes a person. A vidanto is a person who sees. A person who did see is a vidinto. A person who will see is called a vidonto. In the passive, a vidato is a person who is being seen right now, a vidito is one who has been seen and a vidoto is one who will be seen in the future.

All these facts apply to every single verb in the language, without exception.

ACCUSATIV E

Esperanto words contain more information than do English words. Esperanto words clearly show what function they fulfill in a sentence, while English words require placement within a sentence in order to determine what function it fulfills. This structure requires a bit more precision on the part of the Esperanto speaker, but the payoff is that the listener can understand the ideas more clearly, and the speaker can take great liberty with the order in which he speaks his words.

The letter n marks nouns and their adjectives which receive the direct action of the verb. In order to say the dog saw the big cat, you would say, la hundo vidis la grandan katon. English requires rigid word order, so that "man bites dog" and "dog bites man" mean two completely different things, even though the only difference is the order in which the words are written. But la grandan katon vidis la hundo has will have the same meaning, regardless of word order.

Notice that the adjective grandan takes the accusative because it agrees with the noun katon. This is true of the plural as well. Esperanto speakers say grandaj katoj if there are more than one. The plural is used together with the accusative. "The dog saw the big cats" would be la hundo vidis la grandajn katojn.

The use of the accusative is extended to motion toward. For instance, la kato kuras sub la tablo means that the cat is under the table, running around. La kato kuras sub la tablon, however, means that the cat ran from somewhere else to underneath the table.

Expressions of time take the accusative ending as well. Instead of saying "I will come on Sunday," Esperantists say Mi venos dimanĉon. Notice that there is no equivalent to "on" in the Esperanto expression of time.

The accusative is used to show measurement, too. In English, we say "I weigh 100 kilograms." In Esperanto, one would say Mi pezas cent kilogramojn, which literally means "I am heavy 100 kilograms." (Note that in international speech, relatively few will know how much a pound weighs). The accusative will be applied to the unit of measurement for cost, periods of time, length, width, height, distance, temperature, mass, weight, volume, density, speed etc.

Pronouns (mi, vi, ili...) and correlatives ending in vowels do take the accusative when necessary. Ordinal numbers (first, second, third… ending in Esperanto in -a) take the accusative, but cardinal numbers (one, two, three…) never do.

PREPOSTITIONS

Prepositions are particles placed before a noun or adjective/noun to form a clause. In English, an example would be "at the beach." In that prepositional phrase, the preposition is "at." Esperanto forms these type of phrases similarly, so "at the beach" would be ĉe la plaĝo. In that sentence, ĉe is the preposition. Some Esperanto prepositions are more concise than English prepositions, for example, "according to me" would be laŭ mi, since laŭ means "according to." Prepositions are often used as affixes, like ĉe-esti means “to attend,” or “to be at.” Where logic permits, most can also stand as root words that can be built upon, such as ekstera, which means “external.”

al	to
anstataŭ	instead of
antaŭ	before, in front of
apud	near
ĉe	at
ĉirkaŭ	around
de	of, from, by
dum	during
ekster	outside
el	out from
en	in
ĝis	until
inter	among
kontraŭ	against
krom	besides
kun	with
kvazaŭ	as if
laŭ	according to, along
malantaŭ	after, behind (mal+antaŭ to make the opposite of ‘before/in front of’)
malgraŭ	in spite of
ol	than (in comparison)
per	by means of
po	at a rate of, @
por	in order to
post	after
preter	beyond
pri	about, concerning
pro	on account of
sen	without
sub	under
super	above
sur	on
tra	through
trans	across

Like the -um suffix, there is a similar "wild card" preposition: je. It is useful in certain phrases such as "I bet money on the horse." The preposition sur ("on top of") does not accurately capture the meaning, so to mean “on” you can use the preposition je, which has no definite meaning. This is commonly used with expressions of time. “At 3 o’clock” is not a place, so ĉe to mean “at” does not work. For that purpose, je is used.